Country:
United States (California) and Egypt
Location:
Central Valley, California, and Nile Delta, Egypt
Implementing Institution/ Organization:
Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI) in Egypt; unspecified institutions in California
Goals
To investigate the feasibility and effectiveness of reusing agricultural drainage water for irrigation to support water sustainability.
Objectives
1-Assess Feasibility and Effectiveness: To evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of reusing agricultural drainage water for irrigation, focusing on water sustainability in arid and semi-arid regions.
2-Compare Regional Practices: To compare the regulatory frameworks, technical approaches, and institutional practices for drainage water reuse in the Central Valley of California and the Nile Delta in Egypt.
3-Identify Policy and Implementation Gaps: To identify legislative and institutional gaps, particularly in Egypt, that hinder optimal reuse practices, and suggest improvements based on insights from California's established frameworks.
4-Support Water Resource Management: To support the development of sustainable water management practices through effective drainage water reuse, with considerations for environmental and agricultural impacts.
Methodology (approach)
1. Case Study Comparison: The study undertakes a comparative analysis of drainage water reuse practices between the Central Valley of California and the Nile Delta in Egypt, examining each region’s approach to managing and reusing agricultural drainage water.
2. Policy and Regulatory Review: It involves a thorough review of local and regional policies and regulatory frameworks governing wastewater reuse in agriculture. This includes examining the historical development of wastewater policies, particularly California’s regulations since 1918, and identifying gaps in Egypt’s legislative framework.
3. Technical Practice Analysis: The study evaluates technical practices and systems implemented for drainage water reuse, such as treatment technologies, monitoring methods, and irrigation systems used to make reclaimed water suitable for agricultural use.
4. Environmental and Agricultural Impact Assessment: By examining the outcomes of these practices on soil, crop production, and water quality, the study assesses the environmental and agricultural impacts of reusing treated drainage water.
5. Lessons Learned and Best Practices Identification: The methodology includes identifying best practices from California’s long-standing reuse system and assessing their applicability to Egypt, with the goal of recommending scalable and sustainable solutions for similar regions.
Study results
1. California's Advanced Regulatory Framework: California has established an extensive regulatory framework for wastewater reuse since 1918, which includes specific guidelines and standards that ensure safe reuse for agricultural irrigation. These regulations serve as a model for sustainable wastewater management globally, showcasing the benefits of a robust legislative approach.
2. Egypt’s Institutional and Legislative Gaps: Egypt has taken steps to adopt drainage water reuse, particularly due to its arid climate and water scarcity. However, limitations in Egypt's legal framework and institutional mandates create barriers to effective wastewater reuse, leading to inconsistencies in application and enforcement.
3. Environmental and Agricultural Benefits: In both California and Egypt, the reuse of treated drainage water has proven beneficial for agriculture, contributing to enhanced soil fertility and providing essential nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorus) that support crop growth, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers.
4. Challenges in Water Quality and Crop Compatibility: Issues such as salinity, heavy metal contamination, and nutrient imbalances were identified as challenges, particularly in Egypt. These factors limit the types of crops that can be safely irrigated with reused drainage water and underscore the need for effective water quality monitoring systems.
5. Lessons from California’s System: California's comprehensive monitoring practices and technological advancements in water treatment provide a benchmark for developing more effective water reuse strategies. Egypt could benefit by adopting similar approaches, particularly in establishing strict quality standards and monitoring protocols to ensure safe reuse practices.
6. Positive Impact on Water Resource Management: Both case studies illustrate that reusing agricultural drainage water can significantly alleviate pressure on freshwater resources, contributing to broader water sustainability and conservation efforts in arid and semi-arid regions.
Conclusions
1. Importance of Regulatory Frameworks: California’s success in agricultural drainage water reuse is largely attributed to its well-established regulatory framework, which has been in place for over a century. This robust structure ensures safe and effective reuse of treated drainage water, demonstrating the critical role that legislation plays in sustainable wastewater management.
2. Need for Institutional and Legal Enhancements in Egypt: While Egypt has made progress in reusing agricultural drainage water, gaps in legal frameworks and institutional responsibilities present challenges. Addressing these gaps is essential for Egypt to maximize the benefits of water reuse and align with international best practices.
3. Environmental and Agricultural Viability: The reuse of treated drainage water provides dual benefits—enhancing agricultural productivity by supplying crops with essential nutrients and reducing environmental contamination. Both case studies indicate that properly treated drainage water can positively impact soil health and crop yields, supporting sustainable agriculture.
4. Adaptation of Best Practices: Lessons from California, including stringent monitoring practices and advanced treatment methods, offer valuable insights for Egypt and similar regions. Adapting these best practices can help address local challenges like water quality concerns and crop compatibility issues, promoting safe and efficient reuse.
5. Water Resource Management and Conservation: Reusing agricultural drainage water is a feasible solution for mitigating water scarcity, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. Implementing such practices can relieve pressure on freshwater resources, making it an integral part of comprehensive water resource management.
6. Necessity of Continued Research and Innovation: The study emphasizes the need for ongoing research to refine treatment technologies and address emerging challenges such as salinity and heavy metal contamination. Innovation in monitoring and treatment methods is crucial for improving the safety and scalability of wastewater reuse.
Recommendations
1. Develop a Comprehensive Legal Framework in Egypt: Establish clear regulations and enforceable standards for wastewater reuse in Egypt, similar to California’s long-standing policies. This framework should outline quality standards, permissible uses, and monitoring requirements to ensure safe and effective reuse practices.
2. Define Institutional Roles and Responsibilities: Clarify and streamline institutional roles in water management, especially in Egypt, to reduce overlap and improve coordination. This would support efficient oversight, regulation, and implementation of water reuse practices.
3. Adopt Best Practices from California: Egypt and other arid regions should consider adopting California's best practices, including stringent water quality monitoring and advanced treatment technologies, to address local challenges such as heavy metal contamination and salinity in reused water.
4. Enhance Monitoring and Data Collection Systems: Implement a comprehensive monitoring system to regularly assess water quality, particularly for contaminants like heavy metals and salinity. This data-driven approach can help ensure compliance with standards and guide safe agricultural reuse.
5. Invest in Research and Development: Support ongoing research on treatment technologies tailored to local conditions, especially for addressing issues such as nutrient management, heavy metal removal, and salinity control. Developing innovative solutions can optimize the quality and safety of reused water for agriculture.
6. Promote Public Awareness and Farmer Training: Raise awareness among farmers and the public on the benefits and safe practices of using treated drainage water in agriculture. Providing training on appropriate irrigation methods and crop selection can enhance acceptance and adoption of wastewater reuse.
7. Encourage Use of Salt-Tolerant Crops: Recommend planting salt-tolerant crop varieties in areas where salinity levels are higher in reused drainage water. This strategy would help optimize water reuse while minimizing risks to crop health and soil quality.
8. Establish Financial Incentives: Consider financial incentives or subsidies to support the adoption of advanced treatment technologies and promote compliance with wastewater reuse standards. Incentives could also encourage investment in infrastructure needed for safe water reuse.
References
Cosgrove WJ, Loucks DP (2015) Water management: current and future challenges and research directions. Water Resour Res 51:4823–4839. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014WR016869
Khalid S, Shahid M, Natasha I, Sarwar T, Shah AH, Niazi NK (2018) A review of environmental contamination and health risk assessment of wastewater use for crop irrigation with a focus on low and high-income countries. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15:895. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15050895
Sheikh B, Nelson KL, Haddad B, Thebo A (2018) Grey water: agricultural use of reclaimed water in California. J Contemp Water Res Educ 165:28–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1936-704X.2018.03291.x
Banuelos G, Lin Z (2006) Reuse of agricultural drainage water in central California: Phyto sustainability in soil with high levels of salinity and toxic trace elements. Geol Soc Lond Spec Publ 266:79–88. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2006.266.01.07
Hanak E, Lund J, Arnold B, Escriva-Bou A, Gray B, Green S, Harter T, Howitt R, MacEwan D, Medellin-Azuara J, Moyle P, Seavy N (2017) Water stress and a changing San Joaquin Valley. Public Policy Institute of California. https://www.ppic.org/content/pubs/report/R_0317EHR.pdf
Tanji K, Davis D, Hanson C, Toto A, Higashi R, Amrhein C (2002) Evaporation ponds as a drain water disposal management option. Irrig Drain Syst 16:279–295. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024877630332
Shannon MC, Cervinka V (1997) Drainage water re-use. In: Madramootoo C, Johnston WR, Willardson LS (eds) Management of agricultural drainage water quality. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO, Rome
Eltarabily MG, Negm AM, Savvedra OC (2015) Effects of di-ammonium phosphate on hydraulic, compaction, and shear strength characteristic of sand and clay soils. Arabian J Geosci 8:10419–10432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-015-1959-4
Eltarabily MG, Negm AM, Yoshimura C, Savvedra OC (2017) Modeling the impact of nitrate fertilizers on groundwater quality in the southern part of the Nile Delta, Egypt. Water Supply 17(2):561–570. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2016.162
Easton ZM, Bock E, Collick AS (2017) Factors when considering an agricultural drainage system, vol 208. University, V.S., Communications and Marketing, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Blacksburg
Shrivastava P, Kumar R (2015) Soil salinity: a serious environmental issue and plant growth-promoting bacteria as one of the tools for its alleviation. Saudi J Biol Sci 22(2):123–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2014.12.001
Rhoades JD (1974) Drainage for salinity control. In: Van Schilfgaarde J (ed) Drainage for agriculture. Agronomy monograph no. 17. SSSA, Madison, pp 433–461
Barnes J (2014) Mixing waters: the reuse of agricultural drainage water in Egypt. Geoforum 57:181–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2012.11.019
El-Zanaty F (2001) Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of Egyptian farmers towards water resources: national survey 2001, EPIQ Water Policy Reform Program. Report no. 7. Prepared by El-Zanaty & Associates for the Agricultural Policy Reform Project, USAID, Cairo
MALR (2009) Sustainable agricultural development strategy towards 2030. Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MALR) Committee on Agricultural Research and Development in Cooperation with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Cairo, January 2009
Brown P, El Gohary F, Tawfic M, Hamdy E, Abdel-Gawad S (2003) Nile river water quality management study, Egypt water policy reform project, report no. 67. USAID, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, June 2003
Abdelly C, Öztürk M, Ashraf M, Grignon C (2008) Biosaline agriculture and high salinity tolerance. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel
Abdel-Dayem S, Abdel-Gawad S, Fahmy H (2007) Drainage in Egypt: a story of determination, continuity, and success. Irrig Drain 56(S1):S101–S111. https://doi.org/10.1002/ird.335
El-Bably A (2002) Advanced and integrated approaches for crop tolerance to poor quality irrigation water in Egypt. In: Zdruli P, Steduto P, Kapur S (eds) 7. International meeting on soils with Mediterranean type of climate (selected papers). CIHEAM Bari, pp 363–378 (Options Mediterraneans; n. 50)
Eltarabily MG, Negm AM, Yoshimura C, Abdel-Fattah S, Savvedra OC (2018) Quality assessment of southeast Nile delta groundwater for irrigation. Water Resour 45:975–991. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0097807818060118
Zhu Z, Elassiouti I, Khattab A, Azim R (1998) National policy for drainage water reuse. Agricultural Policy Reform Program, USAID, Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources, Report no. 8, June 1998
MWRI (2005) National water resources plan for Egypt–2017. Report prepared through the National Water Resources Plan Project, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Cairo. http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/ egy147082.pdf
Van Achthoven T, Merabet Z, Shalaby K, van Steenbergen F (2004) Balancing productivity and environmental pressure in Egypt: towards an interdisciplinary and integrated approach to agricultural drainage. Agriculture & Rural Development Working Paper No. 13. Washington, DC, The World Bank
Ismail A (2011) Egyptian drainage water reuse practices and measures to alleviate the risk of failure. Second Arab Water Forum, November 20–23, 2011. Cairo
JICA (2016) The project for drainage water quality control for irrigation in middle Nile Delta in the Arab Republic of Egypt. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Sanyu Consultants Inc. Final report, March 2016. https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12252839_01.pdf
FWMP (2002) Drainage water reuse, ministry of water resources and irrigation, Fayoum water management project (FWMP). Technical report no. 29. May 2002
Allam M, Allam G (2007) Water resources in Egypt: future challenges and opportunities. Water Int 32(2):205–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060708692201
Fleifle A, Allam A (2016) Remediation of agricultural drainage water for sustainable reuse. In: Negm A (ed) The Nile Delta. The handbook of environmental chemistry, vol vol 55. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2016_119
Donia NS (2012) Development of El-Salam Canal automation system. J Water Resour Prot 4:597–604. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2012.48069
APP (2005) In proceedings of the workshop on the intermediate reuse of drainage water. Organized by the Advisory Panel Project (APP) on Water Management, Cairo, 23rd June 2005
Barnes J (2014) Cultivating the Nile: the everyday politics of water in Egypt. Duke University Press, Durham. https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822376217
Barnes J (2012) Pumping possibility: agricultural expansion through desert reclamation in Egypt. Soc Stud Sci 42(4):517–538. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306312712438772
Link:
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/698_2022_863
